Organizational Chart Essay Example for Free

Organizational Chart Essay module Training Crew Crew Members Crew Members Website Designers Website Designers Delivery Staff Delivery Staff Customer Service Customer Service Cleaners Cleaners An organisational chart shows the main parts of the organisation, and the relationship between the various parts. McDonalds organisational chart is hierarchal. Its also t altogether because it has more than 3 levels. The reason why this is a tall structure is because McDonalds is a big company with restaurants all over the world, so they need people in every country to make sure that the businesses is making profit and progress. Organisational structure Organisational structure set show up important aspects of how communication will take place. For example managers, supervisors and assistants would report to senior managers where they would report to board of directors. Also board of directors sets out the strategy, then senior managers atomic number 18 giving targets to staff that works in McDonalds so they can achieve them. The purpose of organisational structure is to share the work so everyone knows what they are doing and to progress lines of control and communication.McDonalds divided people into managers, team leaders, staff training crew, cleaners, customer service, restaurant manager, etc. It helps to control organisational activities. Types of organisational structure * Geographical area McDonalds has its restaurants all over the world. In order to make it work they had to hire people to run the business in every country that they operate. * Function duad of control Span control is the amount of employees a manager has direct line authority over. Organisational chart- MacMillan Cancer Support

Lewins Model of Organisational Change Essay Example for Free

Lewins Model of Organisational Change EssayExample of repositioning some other current example is McDonalds who has lost touch with consumers and global changing needs of consumers (health issue) and are arduous to reposition themselves capitalising on their competencies like store location and thingmajig to update their brand offerings.A brands market share and profitability whitethorn be strengthened by repositioning. Repositioning can be accomplished by physically changing the product changing the price changing distribution changing image through promotional efforts aiming product at a various target marketRepositioningWhen a product or brands position creates an unfavorable circumstance, the companys marketing team may seek to reposition it. Repositioning is the process of changing consumer perceptions of a brand relative to competitors. It involves a sweeping process that must be implemented at the strategic level, thereby affecting every part of the company. It canno t simply be a marketing ploy, which might arouse the suspicions of consumers.Repositioning is the process of changing consumer perceptions of a brand relative to competitors.In the positioning map shown in Figure 5.9, Nissan did not have an advantage with regard to either safety or speed. The marketing department, after seeing the results, might try to reposition Nissan on the variable of safety. Repositioning would involve improvements in the safety features of the automobile (in the design and manufacturing departments), a promotional campaign to inform consumers of these changes (marketing), public relations releases announcing the results of hot safety tests when they favor the company, and an overall company focus on safety.Such a strategy includes communicate all employees about the new approach and rewarding those who suggest innovations and improvements related to safety of the automobiles.If successful, a future positioning map would show Nissan moving up on perceptions o f safety. The Hyundai example from earlier in this chapter serves as an example of effective repositioning. The company moved from perceptions of being cheap and low quality to a new position based on improved consumer perceptions of quality.Product re-positioningSometimes during its existence, a company may notice that its products image is outdated, or can be improved. then the company starts re-positioning its products in customers perception. Re-positioning consists in identifying a new, unoccupied market position and promoting the product based on the new criteria. Re-positioning is suitable for minimizing companys own products competition. The business is trying to make a difference in the way the consumers perceive the similar products they furnish. Re-positioning requires a sustained promotional campaign and bring forward many risks.

Risk assessment and environmental impact assessment

find mind and environmental impact assessmentSECTION 11.1 INTRODUCTIONThis report is on the use of risk assessment (RA) in Environmental impact assessment (EIA). Over the last three decades, there has been a remarkable growth of environmental issues in sustainability and the better management of development in harmony with the environment (Glasson at al 2004). The most popular and wide utilize environmental management techniques are EIA and RA.EIA is a process to identify and predict the impact on the environment and on mans health and well creation of legislative proposals, policies programmes, projects and ope sensible procedures, and to interpret and communicate information about the impacts (Munn 1979). The EIA process includes screening, scoping, impact prediction and evaluation, impact mitigation, decision making (EIA follow up) with public liaison and consideration of alternatives potenceityly incorporated in all the stages of the process (Woods 1995, Canter 1996, Lee an d George 2000).The US National Research council (NRC) defines RA as the characterization of the potentiality adverse do of human exposure on environmental hazards. A special assessment procedure that aims at tackling certain consequences of human activities is called Risk appraisal (Demidova and Cherp). The stages in risk assessment are as follows hazard identification, exposure assessment, risk estimation, risk evaluation and risk management (Eduljee 1999).Environmental risk assessment is a generic term for the series of tools and environmental risks and the formation of judgement about them. (DOE 1995, DETR2000) Risk assessment emerged in the mid to late 1970s as an administrative requirement in the form of both statues and executive orders requiring not only more extensive documentation to justify proposed risk regulation, but overly the balancing of risk against economic costs and benefits. (Atkisson et al 1985).Environmental Health risk assessment has been defined as the sys tematic scientific characterization of potential adverse health effect resulting from human exposure to hazardous agents or situations (Faustman and Omenn 2001).In concept, EIA and RA have evolved as parallel and sometimes overlapping procedures for rational reform to policy making (Andrews 1995). The purpose of both concepts is to provide an acceptable basis for making public decisions, not necessarily to generate pertly scientific knowledge (Andrews 1995).Table 1 below summarizes the similarities and differences of EIA and RA.1.2 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN RA AND EIAThe most important similarity is comparison the stages of RA with those of the EIA process. Thus, hazard identification in RA is equivalent to screening and scoping in EIA, risk estimation is equivalent to impact prediction in EIA, risk evaluation is equivalent to impact prediction in EIA (determining the significance of the impact) while mitigation in EIA can be equated to risk management (specifically risk red uction and control). (Eduljee 1999).SECTION 22.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE deuce CASE STUDIESTwo EIA causa studies will be compared from two different industrial sectors and they are the Berkeley nuclear force station where a new verbalism for radioactive burn out is to be constructed and the A350 Westbury bypass. The aim of this report is to examine how environmental/health risk has been used in each of these EIAs and the advantage or potential for improving the use of environmental /health risk assessment in these EIAs.2.11 A350 WESTBURY BYPASS- CASE AThe construction scheme will comprise approximately 5.8 kilometres of new single carriage way around the eastern and northern sides of Westbury and it aims to provide handicraft relief for Westbury, allowing road space in the town to be reallocated to former(a)wise modes, improve journey time reliability of the A350 route and improve access to employment areas, particularly the West Wilts Trading Estate, and between the west Wil tshire towns.The construction strain will last between 18 months to 2 years and would involve site preparation, earthworks main road construction and construction of final surfaces. stirs identified resulting from construction is as followsGeneration of noise and dust with earthworks and vehicular movementPollution risk associated with working in close proximity to surface and groundwater resources.Possible furbelow of ecological and heritage resourcesGeneration and disposal of wasteChange of land use patternPost construction impacts were identified as road traffic and emissions from traffic. (Wiltshire county council, 2007)2.12 BERKELEY NUCLEAR POWER STATION-CASE BMagnox electrical Limited has proposed to construct an intermediate level radioactive waste (ILW) storage building on Berkeley nuclear authorise site. This building will store case ILW wastes that have arisen over time and will store these wastes until an offsite disposal facility is available.The ILW waste will house packaged radioactive waste in one above ground location, rather than storing waste below ground as it currently occurs at the Berkeley nuclear power station.The project will be carried out in three stages,Construction of the buildingOperation/filling of the building with packages of ILW.Long term storage of ILW during kick and maintenance period until a disposal route becomes available.The technical assessment areas covered by the environmental impact statement are as follows- blood line quality and dustArchaeology and cultural heritageEcologyGeology, hydrology and soilsNoise and vibrationSurface watersTraffic and transport. (Gloucestershire country 2007)SECTION 33.1 THE character OF RISK ASSESSMENT IN EACH EIA3.2 METHODOLOGY USED FOR ASSESSMENT IN EISThe methodology of outline of impact should be taken into consideration when comparing the two EIS used for this study bearing in mind that the case studies are from different industrial sectors. Berkeley nuclear power plant is a steep risk and high profile project and it deals with radioactive waste (although the radioactive waste is solid and there is no emission to atmosphere). Westbury bypass on the other hand is low risk low profile project with significant impact on air quality (rise in dust particulate amour and oxides of nitrogen) during the construction phase and emissions from vehicles after construction.Method of analysis of impacts- Case AThe following methods were used in the analysis of local effectsQualitative and numeric assessment used to analyze air quality.Dispersion model selection(air quality strategy)MeteorologySensitive receptorsShort term mean concentrationsMethod of analysis for case-B aboveboard qualitative to complex quantitative method was used to analyze air qualityThe use of scientific criteriaComparison of predicted changes with established national and international air quality standards, objectives and thresholds.Interpretation of planning and other environmental policies for example, the assessment of whether the predicted change will conflict the objectives of an air quality management area.Review of comparable proposals on environment.The NSCA flow chart -Event tree analysisGeneric assessment methodology.Though the methodology used for risk assessment is similar, the event tree analysis which was used in case study B was absent in case study A.SECTION 44.1 POTENTIAL FOR IMPROVING OR EXTENDING EIAEIA have emphasise possible impact on natural ecosystems and, to some extent, human communities but have paid no attention to health effect of other risks (Beanlands 1984a, Clark 1984a and Giroult 1984a). more than precisely, even for impacts whose ultimate significance might involve health, such as air pollution, EIA studies typically predict only the environmental fate of contaminants, rather than the effect on health itself and RA have emphasized human health effects, especially potential mortality due to cancer or technological catastrophes. (Andrews 1995)The stages of RA were incorporated into both case studies, but RA was not carried out extensively especially in the Berkeley nuclear power station case. It is recommended that a sever section concerned with health risk assessment be prepared within the EIS for high risk and high profile projects but it was absent in this case.There was failure to conduct probability assessment (uncertainty analysis) in case of the unforeseen accidents like explosions or unplanned discharge of radioactive solid waste into the environment. Risk =probability (likelihood or chance that harm will occur) - consequence (nature of the harm that can occur).There was also no mitigation plans in case of an accident, if there was, then it was not included in the EIS. Risk communication was also absent in both case studies.Also the window pane resolution or exposure assessment which measures the intensity, frequency and duration of human exposure to an agent was present for case A, (Extrapolation dose reception methodology) but the effects of the dose for air quality pollutants in case B was not analyzed properly. Hazard index calculation for non carcinogens was absent.HAZOP analysis carried out in case A but absent in case B.Source-pathway-receptor identified in case A, but only source and receptor identified in case B.Risk-benefit analysis also absent.Including the omitted RA analyses above would have improved the use of RA in these EIAsSECTION 55.1 CONCLUSION/ RECOMMENDATIONSMany actions need both EIA and RA assessment. In these instances, a more useful analysis would be obtained from combining the two. (Andrews 1995)The aim of this report has been to evaluate how environmental/health RA were used in different stages of the two reviewed EISs, and point out how possible ways that RA might have played a greater role. Systematic application of RA in accordance to best practice was not observed. For a better Incorporation of RA into EIA, there should be emphasis on emergency respo nse measures in the event of accidents and associated environmental perturbations. Canter (1993).REFERENCESWiltshire County Council, (2007) A350 Westbury bypass Environmental Impact Statement 2007. Trowbridge, Wiltshire County Council.Gloucestershire County council (2007) Berkeley ILW Store. Environmental Impact Statement Issue 1 Gloucester. Gloucestershire County Council.Andrews,R.N.C (1995) Environmental Impact Assessment and Risk Assessment Learning from each other, In P Wathern (Ed)Environmental impact Assessment Theory and Practice (Routledge/capital of the United Kingdom)Brookes, A. (2001) Environmental Risk Assessment and Risk management, in P. Morris and R Therivel (Eds) Methods of Environmental Impact Assessment, 2nd Edition(Spon Press/London)Eduljee, G (1999), Risk Assessment in Petts, J. (Ed), Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment, Volume 1, Process, Methods and Potential, Blackwell Science, LondonDemidova, O and A Cherp (2005), Risk assessment for improved treatmen t of health considerations in EIA Environmental Impact Assessment Review 2(4), page 411-429.Canter, L. W (1993) pragmatical Suggestions of Incorporating Risk Assessment Principles in EIA studies. Environmental Professional, 15(1), Page 125-138.

Exploring Sport Opportunities for Disabled

Exploring Sport Opportunities for DisabledExploring pas seul opportunities for young athletes with varied abilitiesAbstractThe aim of the study is to develop a new depotinology from the damaging term of disability and to try and hava an inclusive system during visible activities in schools. In addition is tries to highlight the importance of having more inclusive shimmer opportunities for everyone and to improve the self-conceit of people with different abilities.In Malta few athletes with different abilities study the opportunity to be included into sport activities. In schools there is not much m allocated for persons with disability both(prenominal) during bodily procreation littleons and also during break epoch. As the athlete with different abilities starts thinking seriously of sport activities he encounters a trade of mishaps primarily the over-protection from parents and organisers. In addition he also faces the disadvantage of the lack of sport opportunities f or him. This reason led the researcher to investigate what is really going on, both during childhood when it comes to school activities i.e. physical education lessons, and at later later stage during adolescence and adulthood when it comes to sport opportunities offered by society.This study is made up of quint chapters which start from the history and defenition of disability and ends up with the guidelines to a panache forward.IntroductionThe aims of the study areTo try and transit from a terminology that might skillful negative disability to a better word Different abilitiesTo try and have an inclusive system during physical education in both primal and secondary schoolsTo have more sport opportunities which include everyone both for leisure and also on a professional levelTo strengthen the self-esteem of persons with different abilitiesThe study is made up of five chapters. Chapter 2 tackles the history of disability and sports. An overview of the study gutsground and key terms used within the study probe are also provided.Chapter 2 gives an overview of some basic terms and general knowledge link up to disability and sports which give a better understanding of the aims of the study. An evaulation and illustrations from experts regarding sport and disability sectors also follow.Chapter 3 investigates the approach taken and the processes involved in achieving the dissertation objectives. Details of the sources used as well as a commentary of the method used to collect the primary and secondary research data are also provided.The study concludes with an evaluation of the achieved results in the previous section. The conclusions derived state the opportunities procurable and what can be really done to enhance further inclusion into sport for persons with different abilities, compared to the literature review findings. A study critique concludes the dissertation.CHAPTER 2History of disability1.0 Introduction1.1 HistoryPeople with different abilities better known in society as people with a disability have always been in existence. For many different reasons they have become more present in the twenty first coke than before.About ten pct of the population is considered to have different abilities and the parliament directives of the late twentieth century improved the accessibility and availability of services and facilities for this sort which is considered to be the largest minority group in society. This resulted in more several(prenominal)s with different abilities going along more easily with their daily living. These people are being more recognized in society even in sport. Athletes with different abilities have been participating since at least the last hundred years. However it has only been from recent times that these athletes started receiving the gustatory sensation that they merit and have also been recognized as athletes.The roots of the link between sport and disability to disability sport started primarily d uring the 20th century and developed into a new movement. This movement has developed up to the point so as to include the complexity of its members and also restructuring of its aims and visibility. Athletic opportunities have spread out so as to have individual accomplishments of athletes with different abilities. These overlooked and unseen sportspersons are gaining increased recognition firstly as athletes and above all as humans with different abilities.Exceptional performances by top athletes with different abilities are purely seconds or tenths of seconds behind those of top able-bodied athletes, in sport disciplines wish well downhill skiing and swimming. Athletes with bi-lateral leg amputations finished a hundred metre race in 10.85 seconds and others with less severe impairments finished in even less time. A top male wheelchair athlete finishedd a marathon at an average of 3.5 legal proceeding per mile and managed to complete marathons in almost ninety minutes or less, while a female wheelchair athlete did the same marathon in an hour and forty nine minutes.1.2 Definition of DisabilityThe terms cognitive operation and disability must be delineate clearly in order to understand the interrelationship between functioning and disability. The term functioning describes the functions and structures of the body. It helps to grasp an individuals interaction with a health condition and the surroundingsal and personal contexts. Disability is viewed as the result of the interaction between individual functioning and the environment when linked with a health condition. The level of difficulty is highly dependent on the degree of functional autonomy and independence of persons living with disabilities, be they sensory, physical or mental. Accordingly, functionality is defined as the ability to perform those activities necessary to achieve well-being through and through interaction between the biological, the mental (cognitive and affective) and the social spheres (Sanhueza Parra, 2005), and whose loss entails the put on the line of disability and dependence. Care thus avoids what Morris (2001) terms the social construct of dependence, which negates the individual. For people with disabilities, respecting their right to care gives them access to assistance from others and to essential technical aids, and a physical and social environment that is adapted to their particular impairment.Following the environmental approach taken by WHO, functional autonomy may therefore be defined as the ability to perform functions related to daily life, such as those activities necessary to achieve well-being through appropriate interaction between the biological, the psychological (cognitive and affective) and the social. This enables the individual to live in the community with little or no help from others, albeit with assistive technology. (United Nations, 2012 pg 183) Very often, lay and, sometimes, professional people do not seem to make a dist inction between such terms as Impairments, Dis-abilities, Handicaps. These are often taken to mean one and the same thing. simply this is wrong. The World Health Organisation, in 1980, published a manual titled International Clasification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps, whereby, three distinct and independent were proposed, each relating to a different weather sheet experience. Disability is any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. It represents objectification of an impairment and, as such, reflects disturbance at the level of the person. Disability is concerned with abilities in the form of activities and behaviour a persons body is expected to carry out as essential components of every day life, such as represented by tasks, skills, and behaviour. Disability signifies a passing from the normal in so far as the performance of the individual is conce rned as opposed to that of the organ or mechanism. ( Troisi, 1992 pg 3 4)CHAPTER THREE intelligences REVIEWYoung people are often seen as challenges to most people in society. This is exactly what the article Positive Youth Development through Sport edited by Nicholas L. Holt declares.According to Holt speaking from the perspective of Positive Youth Development (PYD), argues that young people are frequently pointed out as problems in society waiting to be solved. However young people are understood to embody potential, awaiting development.Holt points out that sport itself provides a developmental context that has been associated with PYD, exactly sport on its own does not lead to PYD. In fact he points out that in some environments there are instances when negative outcomes arise from sport intimacy. Thus it is the manner in which sport is structured and delivered to children that influences their development.Nicholas Holt quotes Larson and expresses that, organized activities can provide youth with opportunities to experience positive development. He states that sport is the most popular organized activity into which youth engage (Larson and Verma 1999).Both theory and research point out the importance of structural out-of-school-time (OST) activities as meaning(a) assets in the positive development of youth (Mahoney et al. 2005).Holt in his article says that youth participation in organized sports has been linked to indicators of adolescents physical, social, psychological, and achievement related behaviour and development. Researchers (Barber et al. 2001 Eccles et al. 2003) found that, in comparison to non-participants, youth who participate in sport enjoyed attending school more, received more frequent educational and occupational support, had higher academic performance, longer periods of tertiary education by age 25, and attained a job at age 24 that offered autonomy and a promising future. Although there where diverse research findings regarding t he relationsip of sport participation and alcohol use, some found a relationship between sport participation and a begin level of alcohol use (Peretti-Watel et al 2003). Other findings indicated a positive relationship between sport participation and alcohol use. Sport participation has also been consistently linked to a lower use of cigarettes, marijuana, cocaine, and other drugs (Page et al 1998). Furthermore it was also related to lower rates of depression and lower incidence of suicidal behaviour.Researchers and youth advocates have proposed important benefits of sports involvement. However, to date, little research has accounted for the dynamic ways in which youth spend their free time.A book entitled No ones perfect, tells the story of a Japanese Boy who despite being born without arms and limbs he managed to do it his way into sport.This Japanese little boy, named Ototake, came home from school one day and told his parents he had signed up to round basketball. In contrary t o other parents who would be bright to such a request, they where shocked. Oto was born with no arms and no legs. Despite his disability, this extraordinary young man has always proven a hard-worker, rich in versatility and with an upbeat approach to life. This positivity served him as valuable as limbs. No Ones Perfect is his true account of how he slam-dunked one challenge after another, including basketball.Ototake says that give thanks to having short arms and legs plus a wheelchair, he was a winner in the popularity department. He found himself always the centre of a circle of friends. With time the typical willfulness of an only child began to kick in. Ototake maintains that at first break time, when everyone would be playing tag in the playground, or physical education lessons, were dead boring for him since with his power wheelchair he could not keep up with his friends. Thus he usually yelled for them to come and play with him If you want to play in the sandbox, follow me Strangely enough, the kids who had been happily chasing one another a short while before would all troop after the wheelchair to the sandbox.Ototake highlights that looking back to school days, most people with disabilities admit that recess was the worst part of their day. This is that particular time when ordinary children, unless they are real bookworms, would enjoy. The main reason is that for disenable kids the forty five to fifty minutes of a class period pass quickly enough while they sit quietly in their seat, but during breaks, when they cant join in the fun their classmates, they feel greater sense of isolation so they cant wait for recess to be over.

The Legacy Of Ottoman Empire And Turkey Politics Essay

The Legacy Of fagot Empire And bomb Politics EssayThe study aims to summarize and analyze the recent cultivations in the shopping center East peculiarly after the Arab spring process in terms of the Turkish conflicting constitution and its roots dated back to pouf Empire. Beginning the legacy of Ottoman Empire, the study as vigorous as attempts to high ethereal main milestones for the current Turkish unusual form _or_ system of government under the light of 20th century inter tribeal system and its ever-changing atmosphere such as frigidness struggle situations and later period in this domain.Emphasizing the state makeup period of Turkish Republic, it should be mentioned that secularist formation and westerlyization of in the altogether state piddled new mentality as a nation base and defensive and broadly speaking introvert nation cod to strengthen the social system of state and nation building target after the demolition of World state of war I. At the same period, The Middle East faced lots of geological fault and rooted changes it has never seen before such as mandate system, freedom of new states, oil based strategies of western states, establishment of Israel, World war II and redistribution of power among the global powers as well as regional ones.This study too precedentitizes the main principles and characteristics of Turkish foreign insurance to fightds the Middle Eastern States during the cold war and later on. In doing so, secularist structure, idealist and peaceful tone-beginninges, transformative and pragmatic aspects of Turkish foreign policy be examined in the light of main alliances and treaties in the Middle East. Particularly, dealings with ground forces, European States, Israel and Iran were mentioned in roll to demonstrate big picture including the reaction of Arab States to washout for long time.Iran revolution became a new checkpoint for durability and natural selection of Turkish secular system with the regime exporting concern by Iran during the 1980 s and 1990s. During 1990s, focusing on terrorist attacks, Turkey established strong military connections with Israel which change magnitude the concern of Arab States on Turkey and historical outrages were revitalized in the Middle Eastern States. after(prenominal) the AKP came into power in Turkey, gradually dealing with Iran and Arab States growth approximately(prenominal) economically and governmentally.Arab spring became a new turning point bustially in terms of foreign policy of Turkey. While Turkey was exerting new initiatives in the Middle East, at the same some concerns on new interventionism and neo-Ottomanism were propagated among the Arab States. Concurrently, while recent developments give advantages to Turkey, some visible and long term invisible disadvantages also occurred. Among these disadvantages, increasing terrorist attacks, tension surrounded by Iran and Turkey on Syrian conflict, political interventio n and new prejudices of Arab States on Turkeys foreign policy and also its proactive approach for Palestine. This study finally gives short suggestion as alternative Turkish foreign policy using soft power more than military and political pressure in the region which has more influential than others.THE LEGACY OF OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND TURKEYBy the peculiarity of the 18th century, great scientific and technological developments had been increased in western world. Ottoman Empire could no longer compete against the increasing European powers. As a military power, after Russian invasion to the Crimea which was the part of Ottoman Empire, Russia started to dominate the northern territories of the Ottomans, oddly black sea regions (Ucuzsatar, 2002). Additionally, Napoleans invasion of Egypt in 1798 and British invasion of Egypt in 1882, increasing of Russian influence in Balkans repayable to nationalist slavish movements at the beginning of the 18th century, Ottoman Empire alienated gr eat part of territories in mentioned separate irreversibly (Quataert, 2000). After the long imperial background based on pax-ottoman in most cases, with the eruption of World War I Ottoman territories became a playground of European Powers for regulating the external system and particularly the Middle East. However, for this region, treaties, double promises and strategies explicate by colonial powers could not bring temporary and inactive system moreover it created endless conflict potentials and seeds of enemy like a peace to end all peace (Fromkin, 1989).Although establishing a new, western, secular and nation based state, new Turkish Republic, mostly Turkish citizens could not ignore the Ottoman reality and its long history. Understanding contemporary Turkish politics and foreign policy particularly toward the Middle East is one of the strong arguments for analyzing recent development in this region due to its historical background and legacy of Ottoman Empire. As an rising r egional power, that exemplifies a synthesis surrounded by a Muslim-majority population in the Middle East and a functioning democratic ally of the West, by the new millennia the proactive foreign policy of Turkey has been on the rise. Understanding the recent development, in many academic researches, the focus of attention typically shifts from the posture to the past. As the heart of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey claims the mantle for the imperial rule communicable from the former Roman and Byzantine Empires that made the Ottomans the center of Eastern and occidental world interactions for over six hundred years (Walker, 2009). As a result, there is a growing interest in the Ottoman legacy for modern Turkish foreign policy in the Middle East as well as in Balkans and Caucasus. Addressing the empire history of great powers, Russia, Britain, France, Germany, China, Turkey, and Japan are all direct descendants and successor states of their former empires. In the same way that not all nations share the same power capabilities, ideology, or history, these post-imperial nations inherited a different type of legacy (Walker, 2009). The legacy that these former empires have bequeathed to their respective successor states vary on a number of important areas ranging from corporate memories, institutions, ethnicities, boundaries, and historical disputes. Therefore, the way in which these states deal with and interpret their imperial legacies varies widely and is an important yet under theorized and understudied field in international transaction.In order to solve puzzle properly, nations traditions, set, attitudes, patterns of behavior, habits, customs, achievement and particular ways of adapting to the environment and solving problems with respect to the threat or use of force should be underlined for evaluating the imperial legacy. embodied retrospect is also vital point in this regard. Having been the heart of the Ottoman Empire, the Turks look back on their hist ory with a mixed sense of gazump and ambivalence (Walker, 2009). Collective memory is central to the concept of imperial legacy. It is, after all, the intense memory of the transformative historical empire that informs national beliefs and ensures the continuation of the legacy. While Turks cerebration Ottoman history versus what Arabs call the Ottoman yoke, the same facts may be interpreted by two parties in distinctly different manners. Collective memory is also naturally subjective and constructed during centuries. As a result, a legacy is drawn from the stock of stories that exist in socio-cultural context and its function is to provide a usable past (Walker, 2009). The imperial reputation of the Ottoman Empire and the historical memory of modern Turkey have been unceasingly considered and prioritized on the back of Turks mind. In order to comprehend the history of 20th century in the Middle East and recent developments, Ottoman rule based on millet system, foreign policy of Turkey as successor state, Turkeys proneness toward Middle East as Ottoman legacy and unnaturally formulated borders based on western strategies sort of than regional realities should be analyzed accurately.Foundation of Turkish Republic and Developments in the Middle EastAccording to the most historians, the history of modern Turkey raft be divided into two phases, which are independence period from 1918 to 1923 and the era of reformist and modernization of the Turkish Republic. During the world-class era, as a downfall of Ottoman Empire and escalation of European powers and Russian invasion of Anatolia, in the more than 10 fronts from Balkans to North Africa, from Iraq to Caucasus and Hedjaz, Ottoman armies were within the wars against Arabs, local tribes, British, French, Italian, Russian and moreover Australian and Indian troops. At the end of these wars, Ottoman frontlines withdrew to Anatolian border which is called later as misak-i milli describing mostly nation state bor ders which is almost similar with todays borders. In eastern part of Anatolia, Turco-Russian accordance named The treaty of Moscow and then Kars Treaty finalized eastern border problem with Russia in 1921. After the pull backal of British and French forces from Istanbul in 1922 in the light of related re dissolvents of Sevres Treaty, Greece forces occupied temporarily the western part of Anatolia (Ucuzsatar, 2002). This occupation triggered the independence struggle for war of Turks as a mass defense throughout the Anatolia. In 1921 Sakarya battle which was the great defeat of Greece initiated the talks with the other imperial European powers and it was ended with Ankara Treaty. During first period of foundation, with the painful background about lost territories in the Middle East, Balkans and Caucasus, Turks defended only Anatolian land by aiming at fully independence in their Turkish heartland instead of defending large Ottoman territories due to the weakened military capacity and concluded confrontations with Greece and European powers with the Lausanne Agreement in 1923 prior to declaration of the foundation of new Turkish Republic.In second part of foundation, briefly, Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Ataturk), founder of new secular, modern, western and nation state, launched several political, cultural, educational, social and economic revolutions internally while he was formulating a new foreign policy based on principle peace at home, peace in the world (Ucuzsatar, 2002). This national security policy was based on territorial lawfulness and full sovereignty and the modernization of Turkish forcesel after Ottoman traditional and apparitional social structure. All these revolutionary efforts in a nation coming from Ottoman history were not easily adaptable at that time. Beyond the internal transformative effects, these changes created a new mentality and new foreign policy strategies which prioritize the western alliance and cultures. Among the revolutionary strategies of Ataturk, abolishing of Caliphate in 1934, changing education system, new Latin alphabet as parts of secular state and society were the giant diversifications from Middle Eastern communities.In transforming of region, during the independence period of Turkey, several tremendous changes in the Middle East, never seen in history, occurred in terms of emerging new states, drawing unnatural borders, creating new conflicts among states, increasing the influence of oil based strategies and mandate system which dominated the first half of century in the region.With regard to the foreign policy of Turkey and its new allies at first decades of Republic, Turkish foreign policy between the two world wars was formulated by Ataturks vision and his personality. That is why most writers called this period The Turkey of Ataturk. (Gol, 1992) According to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, Turkeys foreign policy objectives were based on sovereign entity, and full benefits of peace which top execut ive be called non-irredentist approach with the exception of the Montreux Convention, Mosul province and the Hatay Issue. According to Turkey, Mosul was within the National Pact boundaries. On the other hand the Treaty of Lausanne left the undetermined term with Iraq to be settled directly with Britain as trustee for Iraq. Talks started in May 1924, but reached no definite conclusion. The Treaty of Lausanne envisaged that if the parties failed to find a solution within nine months, the issue would be referred to the League of Nations. By 6 August 1924 Britain had decided to make a unilateral application to the League of Nations and had the position Iraqi Frontier put on the agenda of the Council of the League. Finally, the Council decided that the Brussels Line become the permanent border, thereby awarding Mosul to Iraq in December 1925 (Gol, 1992). contempt the reactions in Turkey, the government decided to abide this decision. Beyond the bilateral relations and some agreements and diplomatic visits with neighboring countries, in 1937 Turkey participated to the Saadabad Pact with Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan. It was Turkeys attempt to be a bridge between Asia and Europe.Having witnessed that the abolishing of the caliphate and the secularization of the state caused bitterness in Arab countries, Ataturks westernization policies indirectly separated Arabs and Turks. The treaty of brotherhood between Turkey and Afghanistan was signed during the independence war of Turkey. Moreover, Turkey started to lead an Eastern Pact and signed two agreements with Iran and Iraq. In adjunct to the pact of intimacy with Iran, the visit of Shah Pehlavi served to open a new era in Turca- Iranian relations. Turkey and Iraq solved the border problem with the Mosul Agreement. The Saadabad Pact was not a military alliance, but a pact of friendship and solidarity. The pact called for non-aggression, consultation among the signatory states in case of a threat (Gol, 1992). As a regio nal treaty, it was a seed of cooperative approach, but prior to the World War II, it could not be active and behind the expected level as a multinational organization.Although Ataturk transformed Turkey in the twenties and 1930s from Ottoman Empire to secular republic led Turkey toward West culturally, economically and politically, its population never left its religious beliefs, traditional values and heritage. After the death of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1938, the Turks showed a marked determination to preserve their Moslem identity and develop good relations with neighboring Muslim nations. In reality, unfortunately the Arabs could not forget the harsh oppression of the nascent Arab national movements, and Turks did not readily forget how Arabs had betrayed them during World War I. Actually the relations between Arab Countries and Turkey did not become as expected level due to Turkish Foreign policy priorities and the independence period of Arab countries except Iraq during 1930s and 1940s. After WWII, no close relationship genuine with Arab Countries for long time II due to Turkeys whole engagement with West such as Truman Doctrine with USA in 1947 and joining NATO.After the WW II, in most Arab Countries nationalist blocs were launched and led by Egypt and Syria which was based on supporting the Soviet position in the international arena and opposing Turkeys regional policies. Another important development was also Turkeys recognition to Israel which affected Arab countries foreign policies remarkably against Turkey. Even though not a common known, independence struggle of Algeria against France was also milestone that Turkey did not show willingness as expected level for recognizing the independence of Algeria and not directly support this independency due to its western relations. Under the cold war situation and transformation of Arab countries, Turkish foreign policy was based on its interest with western allies during 1960s and 1970s. Even though so me positive developments internally occurred in terms of religious rights and emotional contacts with Arab communities, several military coups prevented these kinds of growing relations with region. In 1980s, Turkeys relationship with the Muslim oil producing countries was a complete transformation in the balance of power that prevailed during the 1970s. Oil import strategies basically affected Turkeys relations with Iraq, Iran and Libya. Moreover, in Turkish public arena, Arab-Israel wars and Palestine drama, invasion of Afghanistan increased public sensibility as Muslim community. Turkey was also deeply affected by Iran revolution in terms of secular regime structure and western relations.Both developing relations with Israel and terrorist actions hosted by Iraq and Syria were dominant points on Turkeys foreign relations with Arab Countries while economic relations was vent on certain level. Turkeys exertions on the membership for European Union also showed its willingness toward westernization and controlled and balanced relations with neighboring countries, particularly against Iran in internal politics. During the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s cold war situations and internally several coups with the support of western countries in Turkey vie key habit on foreign policy formulation.Dilemma of Turkey Turkish Secularism and its word picture in Arab StatesThe Arabs were one of the important nations during the Ottoman Empire. Although there has been close cultural and religious common sense between Turks and Arabs, the conflicts during the last period of Ottoman Empire fed the distance between Turks and Arabs till 2000s. During the independence period of Arab Countries and cold war period, both Turkey and Arab States have not been in common strategic allies and close relations. Despite the reactions of Arab states, Turkey was one of the states which recognized Israel initially. During the cold war Turkey preferred to develop its relations with western countries dominantly, and Turkey could not strengthen its relation with Middle Eastern Countries particularly with Egypt and Syria. Ironically, when Turkey faced skilful problems with Israel such as in 1956 and after 1967 and 1973 wars, its relations with Arab Countries increased remarkably. In this period Turkey several times associated with Arab States against Israel in UN resolutions and OIC appeals which included common reactions and some sanctions against Israel (Armaoglu, 1995).It should be also mentioned that water sharing problem between Syria, Turkey and Iraq triggered the problems which was based on sharing of Euphrates water. In this issue, Syria with the support of Arab League started to support and host terrorist groups within the Syria and Bekaa Valley in Lebanon which weakened the relations with Syria and Iraq.Beyond the political and economic setbacks among regional states, there are several effects and understandings which feed prejudice and blames reciprocally between Turk ey and Arab States. First of all, even though during the Ottoman Empire there were no crucial problems, in declining period, perceptions among the Arab nations against Turkey have been changed by nationalist approaches, movements, policies of colonial western states, priorities and new foreign policy formulation of new Turkish Republic. Secondly, the structure of western style state, abolishing Caliphate and Arab alphabet and also secularist state formation in Turkey increased the confused feelings of Arab nations against Turkey. Thirdly, the assumption about Ottoman period as Ottoman yoke in Arab region which was obligate by western mandatory states is also influential dimension in relations between Turkey and Arab States during the 20th century (Gol, 1992). The negative attitude of Turkey sometimes during the independence period of Arab States fostered the feelings against Turkey. Last but not least, Turkeys close relation with Israel was one of the important arguments of Arab re action towards Turkey. Additionally, Turkeys formally unwillingness on development of relations with Arab States also played partially role due to its regime protection reflex until 2000.Dramatically, this picture changed with the changing the generation structure and increasing the Muslim values in Turkey and also with transformation in Arab States recently. The melioratement of the Turkish image in the Arab world over the past decade is due to a number of reasons. The rise of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) in 2002 changed the anti-Muslim secularism gradually in terms of politically and socially. Importantly, zero-problems and win-win strategy in regional foreign policy opened up Turkey to the Arab and Muslim world. The democratic structure of Turkey and its growing economic model and export-led growth in a region dazzled the rentier economies based on one export good. Moreover, the success of the Turkish balance between religion, secularism and public freedoms in a regio n was attracted by regional states. Growing familiarity with Turkish culture and society through its popular television programs, documentaries, movies and TV series also played significant role on image transformation (TESEV, 2012).Politically, Turkeys strong stand against American use of its territory and bases in the 2003 for invasion of Iraq, Prime Minister Erdogans unexpected reactions to Israel during the Gaza war of December-January 2008-2009 and Turkeys stand against Israel after the Gaza Flotilla chance in May of 2010 increased positive feelings of Arab nations. Most recently, with the increasing its positive image among the Arab States, this picture not only offers Turkey great opportunity, but also calls tremendous challenges in this Pandora box for coming period. In this vein, as a direct effect on Turkish-Arab relations, Turkish-Israeli relations should be examined for proper consideration of regional development (Onis, 2012).Turkey- Israel Relations and the Reactions from Muslim States in the Middle EastHaving thought the historical background during Ottoman Empire, good relations between the Jews and the Turks have played a remarkable role in development of Turkey-Israel relations in 20th century. Israels location in the heart of a hostile Arab world triggered itself to create new allies to escape isolation by establishing relations with some states in the Middle East. Of all these countries, Turkey and Iran had more in common with Israel than others. As a historical dimension, Ottoman rulers and Turkeys attitude toward the Jews helped smooth the way to normal relations between the two countries. Turkey had been among the first states to recognize the establishment of Israel on May 14th 1948 (Abadi, 1995). However Arabs did not accept Turkish foreign policy and demonstrated their disappointment on this issue. In 1951, for example Turkey concur with the West in protesting Egypts decision which inhibits Israeli ships passage through the Suez Can al. This caused a serious crisis in Turkey-Egypt relations. However, these developments have occurred several times because of Israels aggressive attitudes. Although Turkey developed its relations with Israel, it incorporated Iraq into the Baghdad Pact in terms of anti-Israeli resolutions and measures. Consequently, its policy toward Israel became more confused and it has been difficult to understand at first look. With regard to the Suez crisis, Israel, in collaboration with England and France, started to occupy the Sinai Peninsula. Upon this, based on the Baghdad Pact decisions, Turkey lowered its level of diplomatic representation. Similarly, Israeli declaring Jerusalem as the countrys eternal working capital caused a new crisis for Turkey-Israel relations.On the other hand, during 1950s and 1960s, clearly Turkey-Israeli relations were determined more pragmatic approach rather by ideological. Having said Israels desire to escape isolation in the region, relations between Israel a nd Turkey expanded to include non-security matters and for example Turkey initiated to share agricultural expertise from Israel (Cetinsaya, 2005).In Turkey-Israel relations, 1967 War and the provocation on burning Al Aqsa Mosque in 1969, which is one of the most holy places of Islam, caused to establishment of Organization of Islamic Conference that have been milestone to withdraw diplomatic relations to the low level and serious condemnation towards Israel. In this period, there was a growing threat for Turkey which was the new regime in Syria and its foreign policy arguments against Turkey within the cold war situations. Therefore, Turkeys policy toward Israel was determined not only by fear of pan-Arabism and Nassers ambition, but also by Syrias aggressive behavior. During 1970s and 1980s Syria gave important facilities such as shelter and encouragement to terrorist groups of Kurds and to political movements, such as the Armenian Marxist terrorist organization ASALA. This Syrian policy identified the relations between two countries during last three decades. In the early 1990s the audience of the diplomatic arena changed and Israel gained new heartiness in international relations. Asias most populated countries, such as India and China, established diplomatic relations with Israel, and others followed these actions. At last, in December 1991, the political climate seemed hold and the Turkish government decided to re-establish full diplomatic relations with Israel. 1990s was the honeymoon for Turkey-Israel relations that several important and close relations has been founded such as military defense agreement, transportation of the Manavgat Spring water to Israel, know-how sharing on military technologies, agricultural trade on different kinds of seeds. The more Syrian threats emerged towards Turkey, the stronger ties between Turkey and Israel was established. Thus, the amount of Israeli tourist rapidly increased in Turkey (Bengio, 2005).On the other hand, Turkeys economic needs dictated reliance on the Arab markets, especially for oil. In addition, Turkey needed more commercial relations with Arab states. In the political sphere Turkey sought to obtain Arab support during the Cyprus crisis. increase the relations with Israel, Turkey faced to loss of support from the numerous Muslim members in the UN. In the context of Arab public opinion on Turkey, feelings have been always fluctuated in accordance with political development, alliances, military agreements and Palestine issue. (Nachmani, 2005)Beyond the recent development at the end of 1990s, Turkey-Israel relations lost impetus in the 2000s as a consequence of the change of governmentin Israel. With the Ariel Sharon disposition coming to power, violence towards the Palestinian people increased. Following the Al-Aqsa intifada and Israels proliferating operations on the Palestinian occupied lands, in April 2002, widespread protests against Israel took place in many provinces through out Turkey. Turkey accused Israel of carrying out genocide, thereby worsening bilateral relations. On the wayward to common knowledge, Turkey-Israel relations have not worsened till 2009 even though there were several important developments occurred in that period. More obviously, with the AKP (Justice and Development Party) administration coming to power in Turkey in November 2002, mutual economic and political relations have been maintained. After the Iraqi war, officially and non-officially, various give-and-take sources stated that there was Israeli presence in northern Iraq and the (Israeli secret service) Mossad agents were training Kurdish Peshmargas which meant the direct support the separation of Iraq and terrorist PKK groups. This has resulted in mistrust towards Israelinbilateral relations. At the same time, in addition to the development in relations with Arab States particularly with Syria after Hafez Al-Assad, Turkeys facilitative role in Turkey-Syria relations start ed to improve again as of March 2007. This time, Turkey led the Syria-Israel negotiations and the hopes of settling dispute between these countries have risen (TESEV, 2012).Last but not least, the breakpoint in Turkey-Israel relations has been erupted with namely Marmara flotilla issue that aimed to humanitarian assistance to the Gaza strip, unfortunately 9 Turks were killed by Israeli army. Although Turkey declared its conditions against this military intervention, the current Israeli government declined Turkeys demands which were suggested for the expediency of the bilateral relations. This rejection by Israel shows that the political relations between the two countries will continue at low-level. In recent period, mostly Turkey-Israel relations are going under the shadow of Palestinian conflict. Even though some politicians use this foreign policy leverage for increasing domestic credibility in Turkey, as long as Turkey continues to support Palestine and condemn Israel for its a ttacks, virtually credible image of Turkey may go on.Turkey- Iran Relations After IslamicRevolutionin IranIran and Turkey are two regional powers and main regional actors which have played significant role during history and they founded two empires and civilizations. Foreign policies and strategies of these two states always designate the developments in the Middle East. Describing the recent and current situation in the Middle East, especially, after the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Turkey and Iran relations gained importance in terms of their influences in the region. With the end of the Shahs regime, Irans foreign policy took a significant turn. This shift in Iran has redefined its relations with Turkey. In addition to the Sunni-Shia sectarian issue and historical contingences between Turkey and Iran which was deemed particularly, foreign-policy orientation of the two countries also diverged completely. While Iran has maintained contentious policies toward America and even Europe , Turkey go along to be part of the Western alliance, NATO and Europe. The revolution led America to redefine its alliances in the region and maintain even closer relations with Turkey.During the Iran-Iraq War, as first decade of Turkish-Iranian relations after the revolution, Turkey and Iran have had willingness to cooperate in trade and economic relations. In this period, the volume of trade between the two countries exceeded $2 billion, consisting mainly of oil sales by Iran in return for Turkish goods and technical assistance. During the Iran-Iraq War, Turkey tried to maintain neutrality and improved its economic relations with both neighbors, especially with Iran (Armaoglu, 1995). Generally, Turkeys neutrality was welcomed in both Iran and the Arab world. However, when Turkey attempted to mediate the conflict, it did not succeed. Despite developments in trade relations, problems a travel between Ankara and capital of Iran in the mid-1980s over PKK terrorism in Turkey and Irans efforts to spread the Islamic Revolution in the region (Sander, 1990).After the first half of the 1980s, Turkish-Iranian relations mostly focused on problems related to ideological differences. Iran repeatedly protested the secularist policies in Turkey which was understood as an intervention and regime exportation to Turkey. The United States also reacted to the Islamic Revolution by improving its relations with Turkey. As Iranian-U.S. relations worsened, Turkey appeared to be the most important ally of NATO and the United States in the region.Significant developments toward the end of the 1980s changed the regional dynamics as well as the course of Iran-Turkey relations. In 1988, after eight years of fighting, the Iraq-Iran War ended. Moreover, the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the USSR were the most important systemic changes affecting Turkey-Iran relations (Armaoglu, 1995). In addition to the challenges caused by the Islamic Revolution, the constants of Turkey-Iran re lations, in the form of cultural, political and ideological rivalries, rose to the surface. Turkey and Iran found themselves in competition for their influence over Central Asia and the South Caucasus. During the Azeri-Armenia war in Nagorno Karabag, Iran and Turkey positioned in different sides, while Iran was supporting Armenia, Turkey supported Azerbaijans claims. Additionally, Central Asian newly emerging States became playground and political challenge scene invisibly between Turkey and Iran as well as the Saudi Wahhabism and Western ideologies.The first Gulf War in 1990-91 also changed the dynamics in the region. Iran and Turkey approac

Alcohol Advertisements Exploit Younger Crowds Essay -- Drinking Alcoho

Alcohol Advertisements Exploit Younger CrowdsAccording to the 1998 National firm Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA), approximately 19 percentage of teenagers 12 to 17 years old were reported to be engaged in alcoholic drink abuse last year. As teenagers grow older, they tend to maintain a higher level of alcohol consumption. The survey reports that approximately 32 percent of young people aged 18 to 24 continue alcohol abuse. In fact, this is the most troubled age group having the highest rates of alcohol use, alcohol dependence, and need for treatment. In spite of restrictions, several millions of teenagers and adolescents are interested in drinking alcohol and are able to get alcohol. According to the Federal merchandise Commissions survey, alcohol advertising and promotions do not reach, and do not affect teenagers and adolescents. But I contend that younger crowds are reached by alcohol advertisers. Unfortunately, teenagers and adolescents see only the obvious side of alcohol a ds--messages on how drinking alcohol may benefit them. At the same time, alcohol advertisers bop that all these messages is nothing but drawing a veil over the exploitative nature of alcohol ads, and advertisers dont care how younger crowds may benefit from drinking, advertisers simply want their money. Roland Barthes, a French philosopher and literary critic, calls advertisements the signs (47). The sign is a system of signification, which consists of two elements the signifier--actual graphical representation that signifies a concept, and the sensory faculty--the concept, which is signified by the signifier (Barthes 115). The author says that, if the signifier is viewed apart from the concept it utters, the signifier has no meaning and is not... ... putting warning messages about the possible negatively charged consequences of alcohol use in their ads. Works CitedBacardi by Night. Advertisement. Jane Magazine. September 1999. 60-61 Barthes, Roland. Elements of Semiology. New York Hill and Wang. 1968. 42. Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. New York Hill & Wang, 1998. 115. Evans, Janet. Self-Regulation in the Alcohol Industry. US Federal sell Commission. 13 Sept.1999. Online. 12 Nov.99 . Shalala, Donna. 1998 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 18 Aug. 1999. Online posting. 1 Dec. 99 . Stamborski, Al. FTC Asks that Alcohol Ads be Kept From Minors A-B Begins Campaign Against Drinking Abuse. St. Louis Post Dispatch 10 Sept. 1999 C10.

Measuring Random Appraisal Error in Commercial Real Estate :: essays research papers

Recent empirical studies imply that most appraisal wrongdoing is non haphazard, which suggests that strategies that advocate portfolio assembly over individual property selection may be defective.Each step of the appraisal process involves an unknown amount of estimation error. The combination of these errors is unlikely to aim a perfect, error-free estimate of value. Thus, appraisal error is virtually unavoidable. Investors need reasonable estimates of value when buying, selling, or retaining commercial property, so an unknown amount of appraisal error adds uncertainty to the decision-making process. Despite the uncertainty, investors have learned to make allowances for appraisal error in their decision-making processes. The way in which real estate investors interpret appraisal errors has a material effect upon the decisions that they make. In particular, the predominant belief among real estate professionals is that appraisal error is random. This belief materially influences investor attitudes toward portfolio management and the valuation process itself. miss of understanding of the relative magnitudes of random and nonrandom components of come appraisal error has consequences for optimal portfolio strategies. For example, investors who deem the bulk of total appraisal error to be random may reasonably conclude that error in estimates is beyond their control or influence. To minimize total portfolio valuation error, such investors may assemble large, several(a) portfolios even though the cost of owning an array of properties of various types and in various locations is expensive. On the other hand, if the bulk of total appraisal error is nonrandom, investors would do ruin to pay attention to improving value estimates on each property rather than hoping that the errors in values of a large pool of properties will rootage one another. In particular, investors should institute valuation controls and procedures to minimize the errors in each valuation of individual portfolio assets. Such controls might include obtaining multiple simultaneous estimates, changing appraisers for each periodic revaluation, or increasing the frequency of valuations. This conclusion becomes particularly significant in light of studies like Miles that determine that the typical magnitude of total appraisal error is about ten percent of appraised value. Information in three recent empirical studies provides evidence that previous appraisal research has been erroneous in assuming most appraisal error to be random. The demonstration that most appraisal error is nonrandom should encourage real estate investors to direction additional attention on individual asset selection and valuation at the expense of portfolio assembly.Estimates of Total Appraisal Error